WAR
The Cheyenne had various military societies which had their own leaders. The leaders consulted with The Chief of the tribe on various matters. They acted as police and kept the tribe in good order. They would plan the different raids on their enemies, organise bison hunts or tried to solve issues of the camp. The military societies are as follows Kit Fox Men, Elk Soldiers, Dog Men (also know as Dog Soldiers which feature in the novel) Red Shields also known as Bull Soldiers, Crazy Dogs, Bowstrings and The Contrary Warriors Society(These men showed their bravery by riding into battle backwards) Not all available men joined these groups, it wasn’t compulsory.
Success in war meant glory, courage, warriors making a name for themselves and were looked upon favourably among the tribe. The Cheyenne ways of war were instilled early into young boys. Warriors were expected to protect their village, women and children from harm. War deeds to kill, take scalp, strike an enemy dead or alive with coup stick, this is known as counting coup. This can be done with bow, gun, stick. It was a greater achievement to count coup above anything else.
The dog soldiers were part of various military groups in the war societies. They were very staunch and upheld their desires to protect their way of life. They were separate to the tribe and would go off on their own accord. The bravest of brave would attach themselves to what they call a dog rope which is made of bison hide attached to a picket pin. This was placed in the ground when fighting an enemy and was not allowed to be moved unless another dog soldier could remove it and free his comrade. If this did not happen then the warrior had two choices to fight to the death or pull up the pin himself and be labelled a coward. Once the dog soldier wanted to part with the role he was able to hand it to someone else. There was a lot prestige in having the dog rope. When it changed over hands, there was a ceremony and feast.
Whenever the dog soldiers were moving out with the village they would be the rear guard of the tribespeople.
The council of 44 was made up of 4 chiefs from each of the 10 bands belonging to the Cheyenne. Although the chiefs governed their own band and made decisions in regard to discipline, ceremonies, hunting and when the camp was to move. In regards to peace treaties, alliances and war and if it would affect the Cheyenne nation as a whole then the council of 44 came together to discuss and make plans.
The Cheyenne were known for their well structured arrows, they were well balanced between the shaft, head and feather. The arrows were made of cherry bush or red willow. While constructing the arrow it was said to be bad luck if the arrow broke. Wild turkey or buzzard feathers were used as they were deemed to be the best as they were not affected if they got wet or stained by organic matter such as blood, dirt. Traditionally the point of the arrow was either made out of stone or bone. But as metal was readily available from traders this was used instead. This made the arrows more piercing and inflict severe wounds.
The lance was used in war and also for the bison hunt and in ceremonies. The lance was approximately 6-7 feet long crafted from wood and with a stone, bone or metal head. They could be decorated with feathers, metal trinkets, animal fur. Such as otter, beaver and deerskin.
The shield was used for protection in war and is said to contain spiritual powers and certain rules and ceremonies had to be followed to keep the medicine strong. If the shield fell to the ground it had to be covered in animal skin and stay there for specified time then purified through burning sage. The shield was covered in deer/antelope skin. It was decorated with anything that signified good medicine such as feathers, trinkets. Pictures of certain animals or birds that were the owners spirit animal that offered protection.
FORT LARAMIE
Fort Laramie is located at the Laramie and North Platte Rivers, South East Wyoming. Founded in the 1830’s originally made of wood and used entirely for the fur trade. It was purchased from the American Fur Company by the US Government for $4,000. Fort Laramie was situated in an ideal place for the Us army to protect the immigrants travelling to Salt Lake City and California. It was the stopping point on the Oregon Trail. The newly formed Bozeman trail also connected into the Oregon Trail.
Fort Laramie became more of a military post as The Native American Indians started raids on travellers and anyone trespassing through their hunting grounds. Red Cloud became a dominant force in this area. Fort Laramie a through fare for absolutely everyone from immigrants, missionaries, soldiers, stagecoaches, and the pony express route. A hub for transport and communication. Treaty negotiations among the plains Indians were discussed here. After the Government bought the land, stables were built, soldiers and officer’s quarters, bakery, supply store and guard house.
The fort was abandoned in 1890, April 20. Any materials that were deemed re-useable and valuable were removed such as doors, windows and flooring.
Thankfully in 1938, the fort became part of the National Park Service.
Fort Laramie was one of the most famous forts during the West and is featured in the novel.
ANIMAL SPIRITS
The Cheyenne believed that animals possessed strong spirits and each had special virtues. Spirit quests sometimes would reveal what type of animal would be the warrior’s guardian. They would decorate various items with a symbol of them whether it was a painted picture or an item of their being such as feathers from a particular bird or part of an animal skin. They could have mystical dreams about their spirit animals.
Bison- Their livelihood, they believed that that the bison was their spiritual helper. Strong symbol of medicine.
Deer/Elk- Power, enduring. Spiritual helpers. The elk was known to have more stronger medicine as it was harder to kill.
Beaver, Skunk, Badger- All represent power and intelligence. The skunk’s hide was often used to carry medicine.
Bear- The bear’s spirit was full of power. A good protector and was a symbol of strong medicine.
Wolves, Coyotes- They possessed Intelligence, guidance and courage. Would give warning when danger approaches.
Eagles- They were known for their big medicine, strength and power. The war bonnets with its eagle feathers were not just for presentation but allowed for protection, some wore eagle feathers in their hair or on war shields, lances etc. The Cheyenne’s war whistles were made of the eagle’s wing bones. They used these whistles to unnerve the enemy.
DAILY LIFE
The daily life was physically challenging, there was a lack of privacy living in large numbers and always being under the eye of their tribe. They lived harmony on the most part and had various military societies that governed the tribe to keep the peace. The women from early morning were responsible for gathering water, firewood and often used bison chips(manure). Cooking and gathering of the plants, herbs and fruits. Making of hides for tepees and clothing, moccasins. They would often gather together and help each other with large tasks such as sewing hides for tepees. Many hands make light work. If the camp was to move then they were responsible to break camp and could do this very quickly. They reared their children often with the help of their elders or other members of the clan who would teach them their life skills of being a Cheyenne. For example an elder might teach a young boy how to ride a horse proficiently and how to hunt game. Once a child was born they taught it to be strong and not to cry(as this would give their position away to any enemies. They never punished or hit their children. They would provide advice and guidance.
The men’s morning ritual was bathing in the nearby streams in all weather conditions, they thought this would enhance their health. They would bring in the herd of horses from their night pastures and pick out their horses that they would use for the day and tie them to the outside of their lodges. The men were responsible for hunting of food and protecting the women and children, war was a big part of their life making raids on other enemy tribes and also protecting their land from settlers and any conflict with the US army. They also made implements such as arrows, shields, painting important events on deer hides, a way of keeping history. They would also train and teach others of the life of a warrior and other life skills to survive as a Cheyenne. They were also kept busy If they belonged to any military societies that governed the tribe, overseeing the tribes people.
Apart from all the hard daily activities they found time for feasts, visiting, singing, music(drums and flute) dance/ceremonies, competitions, games, stick throwing, sledding in winter(making sleds made with bison rib bones). Each day, one of the tribespeople was known as the camp crier. This person would shout out news or the agenda for the day. Anything the chief wanted his tribe to know. This person started at the opening of the tribal circle then in the direction of south, west, north and east. Entertainment consisted of songs, singing. The songs could be of varying subjects such as healing, war, love, animal spirit and religious songs. Musical instruments were used such as drums(made of deerskin and wood, beaten with a stick. The drums were often used in ceremonies. The rattle was made of rawhide sewed with sinew, small stones were placed inside. Flutes were made of juniper wood, they were made of two halves and either glued together or tied with sinew. The six finger holes were burnt out. The flute was only permitted at night. Often men would play the flute to woe their sweetheart.
During the day the young children would play in the water, go swimming, they would also learn essential skills such as horse riding from their elders. The boys would play pretend war games and mould shapes of animal and people from clay.
Children were given a good grounding in survival skills, their livelihood depended on it. Once they reached an age were they were independent their skills had flourished and were very resourceful.
